DATA COLLECTION AND MEASUREMENT & SCALING TECHNIQUES

Submitted By:
Dancy Lobo
Daryl Tauro
Divya K
Divya Periera
Heloise Soans
Ibrahim Khaleel
Ivon Mendonca
Janet Aranha
Jean Lobo
Jesica Moras
Joril Mathias
Juditha D’souza
Kailas S Bhat
Kalandar Shafi
Karthik Bhandary
Lekha Saraswathi
Lynn Bucher
Manisha D
Melisa D’souza
Melissa C D’souza
Melissa Albuquerque
Melwin D’souza
Mervin Sequeira
Michelle Rego
Michelle Pereira
Mita Menezes
Mitchelle Vaz
Mohammed Fayaz
Mohammed Irshad
Naziya

Table of Content

Sl. No.	Topic
1	Data Collection – Primary Data – Advantages & Disadvantages
2	Secondary data – Introduction, Sources of Secondary Data
3	Special Techniques Of Market Research Or Syndicated Data
4	Classification Of Syndicated Data
5	Miscellaneous Secondary Data - Advantages And Disadvantages Of Secondary Data
6	Data Collection Methods - Observation Method For Primary Data
7	Types Of Observation Method
8	Advantages And Disadvantages Of Observation Method
9	Survey Methods
10	Survey Methods Classified By Mode Of Administration & Advantages And Disadvantages
11	A Comparative Evaluation Of Survey Methods
12	Selection Of Survey Methods
13	Questionnaire Design - Importance And Limitations, Characteristics
14	Different Types Of Questionnaire Design
15	Process Of Questionnaire Designing
16	Mail Questionnaire - Advantages And Disadvantages
17	Additional Consideration For The Preparation Of Mail Questionnaire , System approach to data collection
18	Qualitative Techniques Of Data Collection – Introduction & Qualitative Vs Quantitative
19	Qualitative Research Methods/Techniques
20	Conditions For A Successful Interview
21	Measurement & Scaling Techniques – Introduction , Components Of Attitude & Determinants Of Attitude
22	Primary Scaling Techniques
23	Comparative and Non Comparative Scales
24	Criteria For The Good Test
25	Bibliography

DATA COLLECTION - PRIMARY DATA

Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand. We collect the primary data during the course of doing experiments. We can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents. There are several methods of collecting primary data like observation method, interview method, questionnaires, etc. Obtaining primary data can be expensive and time consuming.

Advantages:

1. It can be collected from a number of ways like interviews, telephone surveys, focus groups etc.
2. It can be also collected across the national borders through emails and posts.
3. It can include a large population and wide geographical coverage.
4. Primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher about the topic under consideration.
5. Basic data
6. Data direct from the population.
7. Researcher will find data suits the purpose of experiment

Disadvantages:

1. It has design problems like how to design the surveys, questionnaires, etc
2. Some respondents do not give timely responses. Sometimes, the respondents may give fake, socially acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the realities.
3. Large volume of data
4. Huge volume of population
5. Time consuming and costly.

SECONDARY DATA

Introduction: Secondary data are statistics that already exist. They have been gathered not for immediate use. This may be described as “those data that have been compiled by some agency other than the user or researcher in question”. Secondary data can be classified as:

(a) Internal secondary data

(b) External secondary data

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Internal secondary data:

Internal secondary data is a part of the company’s record, for which research is already conducted. Internal data are those that are found within the organization. Example: sales in units, credit outstanding, call reports of sales persons, daily production report, monthly collection report, etc.

External secondary data:

The data collected by the researcher from outside the company. This can be divided into four parts:

• Census data
• Individual project report being published
• Data collected for sale on a commercial basis called syndicated data
• Miscellaneous data

Census data is the most important data among the sources of data. The following are some of the data that can obtain by census records.

· Census of the whole trade

· Census of the retail trade

· Population census

· Census of manufacturing industries

· Individual project report being published

· Encyclopedia of business information sources

· Product finder

· Thomas registers, etc.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES OF MARKET RESEARCH OR SYNDICATED DATA

These techniques involve data collection on a commercial basis, i.e.; data collected by this method is sold to interested clients on payment. Examples of such organizations are AC.Nielson, ORG Marg, IMRB, etc. these organizations provide NRS called national readership survey to the sponsors & advertising agencies. They also provide business relationship survey called BRS which estimates the following:

(a) Rating

(b) Profile of the company, etc.

These people also provide TRP rating namely television rating points on a regular basis. This provides:

(a) Viewership figures

(b) Duplication between programmes, etc. some of the interesting studies made by IMRB are Study of Nations Attitude & Awareness Programme (SNAP). In this study, the various groups of India’s population & their lifestyles, attitudes of Indian housewives were detailed.

There is also a study called FSRP which covers children in the age group of 10-19 years. Beside their demographics & psychographics, the study covers areas such as:

· Children as decision-makers

· Role models of Indian children

· Pocket money & its usage

· Media reviews

· Favoured personalities & characteristics

· Brand awareness & advertising recall.

Syndicated sources consist of market research firms offering syndicated services. These market research organizations collect & update information on a continuous basis. Since data is syndicated, its cost is spread over a number of client organizations & hence is cheaper. For example, a client firm can give certain specific question to be included in the questionnaires, which are used routinely to collect syndicated data. The client will have to pay extra charges for these. The data generated from additional questions & analysis will be revealed only to the firms submitting the questions. Therefore we can say that the customization of secondary data is possible. Some areas of syndicated services are newspapers, periodical readership, popularity of TV channels, etc. Data from syndicated sources are available on a weekly or monthly basis.

CLASSIFICATION OF SYNDICATED DATA

Syndicated data may be classified as:

1) Consumer purchase data

2) Retailer and wholesaler data

3) Advertising data.

Most of these data collection methods are also known as syndicated data. Syndicated data can be classified into:

Consumer Purchase Data or Panel type Data:

This is one type of syndicated data. In this method they are consumer panels. Members of this panel will be representative of the entire population. Panel members keep diaries in which they record all purchases made by them. Products purchased range from packaged food to personal care products. Members submit the dairies every month to the organizations for which they are paid. This panel data can be used to find out the sales of the product. These panel data also provides an insight into repeat purchases, effect of free samples, coupon redemption etc.

The consumer panel data also provides profile of the target audience. Nowadays, diaries are replaced by hand-held scanners. Panel also provides data on consumer buying habits on petrol, auto parts, sports goods etc.

Limitations:

· Low income groups are not represented.

· Some people do not want to take the trouble of keeping records of their purchases. Therefore, relevant data is not available.

Advantages:

· Use of scanner tied to the central computer helps the panel members to record their purchases early (almost immediately).

· It also provides reliability and speed.

· Panel can consist only of senior citizens or only children.

We also have the Consumer Mail Panel (CMP). This consists of members who are willing to answer mail questionnaires. A large number of such households are kept on the panel. This serves as a universe through which panel are selected.

Retail and Wholesale Data:

Marketing research is done in a retail store. These are organizations that provide continuous data on grocery products. The procedure does not involve questioning people and also does not rely on their memory. This requires cooperation from the retailer to allow auditing to be carried out. Generally, retail audit involves counting of stocks between two consecutive visits. It involves inspection of goods delivered between visits. If the stock of any product in the shop is accurately counted during both the visits and data on deliveries are accurately taken from the records, the collection of sales of a product over that period can be determined accurately as follows:

Initial stock+ Deliveries between successive visits – Second time stock = Sales

If this information is obtained from different shops from the representative sample of shops, then the accurate estimates of sales of the product can be made. To do this, some shops can be taken as a “Panel of shops” representing the universe.

Advantages:

· It provides information between audits on consumer purchase over the counter in specific units. For example, KGs, bottles, No’s, etc.

· It provides data on shop purchases i.e., the purchases made by the retailer between audits.

· The manufacturer comes to know how competitor is doing.

· It is a very reliable method.

Disadvantages:

· Experience is needed by the market researcher.

· Cooperation is required from the retail shop.

· It is time consuming.

Advertising Data:

Since a large amount of money is being spent on advertising, data needs to be collected on advertising. One way of recording it by using passive matter. This is attached to a TV set records when the set was “On”. It will record “How long a channel is viewed”. By this method, data regarding audience interest in a channel can be ascertained. One thing to be noticed from the above is that it only tells you that someone is viewing television at home. But it does not tell you “who is viewing at home”. To find out “who is viewing” a new instrument called “Peoples Meter” is introduced. This is a remote – controlled instrument buttons. Each household is given a specific button. When that button is pressed, it signals the control box that a specific person is viewing. This information is recorded electronically and sent to a computer that stores this information which is subsequently analyzed.

MISCELLANEOUS SECONDARY DATA

This data includes trade associations such as FICCI, CEL, Institution of Engineers, Chamber of Commerce, libraries such as public library, university libraries, etc., literature, state and central government publications, private sources such as All India Management Association (AIMA), Financial Express and financial dailies, world bodies and international organizations such as IMF, ADB, etc.

ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

· It is economical, without the need to hire field staff.

· It saves time; (normally 2 to 3 months). If data is available on hand it can be tabulated in minutes.

· They provide information, which retailers may not be willing to reveal to researcher.

· No training is required to collect this data, unlike primary data.

DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

Because secondary data has been collected for some other projects, it may not fit in with the problem that is being defined. In some cases, the feed is so poor that the data becomes completely inappropriate. It may be ill-suited because of the following four reasons:

i. Unit of measurement

ii. Definition of a class

iii. Accuracy

iv. Recency

Unit of measurement

It is common for secondary data to be expressed in units. Example: Size of the retail establishments, for instance, can be expressed in terms of gross sales, profits, square feet area and number of employees. Consumer incomes can be expressed in variables the individual, family, household etc. Secondary data available may not fit in easily.

Definition of a class

Assume that the class intervals are quite different from those which are needed.

Example: Data available with respect to age group is as follows:

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18 – 24 years

25 – 34 years

35 - 44 years

Suppose the company needs a classification less than 20, 20-30 and 30-40, the above classification of secondary data cannot be used.

Problem of Accuracy

The accuracy of secondary data available is highly questionable. A number of errors are possible in the collection and analysis of the data. Accuracy of secondary data depends upon:

(a) Who has collected the data?

(b) How is the data collected?

(a) Who has collected the data? The reliability of the source determines the accuracy of the data. Assume that a publisher of a private periodical conducts a survey of his readers. The main aim of the survey is to find out the opinion of readers about advertisements appearing in it. This survey is done by the publisher in the hope that other firms will buy this data before inserting advertisements.

Assume that a professional MR agency has conducted a similar survey and has sold its syndicated data on many periodicals.

If you are an individual who wants information on a particular periodical you buy the data from MR agency rather from the periodical’s publisher. The reason for this is trust of the MR agency. The reasons for trusting the MR agency are as follows:

1. Being an independent agency there is no bias. The MR agency is likely to provide an unbiased data.
2. The data quality of MR agency will be good since they are professionals.

(b) How the data collected?

1. What instruments were used?
2. What type of sampling was done?
3. How large was the sample?
4. What was the time period of data collection? Example, days of the week, time of the day.

Recency

This pertains to “how old was the information?” If it is five years old, it may be useless. Therefore the publication lag is a problem.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS - OBSERVATION METHODS

Observation and questioning are two broad approaches available for primary data collection. The major difference between the two approaches is that in the questioning process, the respondents play an active role because of their interaction with the researcher.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS FOR PRIMARY DATA

In the observation method, only present/current behaviour can be studied. Therefore, many researchers feel that this is a great advantage. A casual observation could enlighten the researcher to identify the problem. Such as the length of the queue in front of a food chain, price and advertising activity of the competitor etc. Observation is the least expensive mode of data collection.

Example: Behaviour of attitude of the children, and also of those who are inarticulate.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION METHOD

There are several methods of observation of which any one or a combination of some of them could be used by the observer. Some of these are:

• Structured or unstructured method
• Disguised or undisguised method
• Direct - indirect observation
• Human - mechanical observation

Structured or unstructured observation

Whether the observation should be structured or unstructured depends on the data needed.

Example: A manager of a hotel wants to know “how many of his customers visit the hotel with their families and how many come as single customers. Here, the observation is structured, since it is clear “what is to be observed”. He may instruct his waiters to record this. This information is required to decide requirements of the chairs and tables and also the ambience.

Suppose, the manger wants to know how single customers and those with families behave and what their attitudes are like. This study is vague, and it needs a non-structured observation.

It is easier to record structured observations than non- structured observations.

Disguised-Undisguised Observation

In disguised observations, the respondents do not know that they are being observed. In non-disguised observation, the respondents are well aware that they are being observed. In disguised observation, observers often pose as shoppers. They are known as “mystery shoppers”. They are paid by research organisations. The main strength of disguised observation is that it allows for registering the true of the individuals. In the undisguised method, observations may be restrained due to induced error by the objects of observation. The ethical aspect of disguised observation is still open to question and debate.

Direct -Indirect Observation

In direct observation, the actual behaviour or phenomenon of interest is observed. In indirect observation, the results of the consequences of the phenomenon are observed. Suppose, researcher is interested in knowing about the soft drinks consumption of a student in a hostel room. He may like to observe empty soft drink bottles dropped into the bin. Similarly, the observer many seek permission of the hostel owner to visit the kitchen or stores. It may be noted that the success of an indirect observation largely depends on “how best the observer is able to identify physical evidence of the problem under study”.

Human-mechanical observation

Most of the studies in marketing research are based on human observation, wherein trained observers are required to observe and record their observation. In most cases, mechanical devices such as eye cameras are used for observation. One of the major advantages of electrical/mechanical devices is that their recordings are free from any subjective bias.

OBSERVATION METHOD - ADVANTAGES

The original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the event

1. Observation is done in natural surroundings. Therefore, the facts emerge more clearly, where as in a questionnaire, experiments have environmental as well as time constraints.
2. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part with some of the information. Such information can be obtained by the researcher through observation.
3. Observation can also be done on those who cannot articulate
4. Any bias on the part of the researcher is greatly reduced in the observation method.

LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION METHOD

1. The observer might wait for the longer period at the point of observation. And yet the desired event may not take place. Observation is required over a long period of time and hence may not occur
2. For observation an extensive training of observers is required
3. This is an expensive method
4. External observation provides only superficial indications. To delve beneath the surface is very difficult. Only overt behavior can be observed.
5. It is very difficult to gather information on

Opinions

Intensions

SURVEY METHODS

The survey method of obtaining information is based on the questioning of respondents. Respondents are asked a variety of questions regarding their behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness, motivations, and demographic and lifestyle characteristics. These questions may be asked verbally, in writing, or via computer, and the responses may be obtained in any of these forms. Typically, the questioning is structured. Structured here refers to the degree of standardization imposed on the data collection process. In structured data collection, a formal questionnaire is prepared and the questions are asked in a prearranged order; thus the process is also direct. Whether research is classified as direct or indirect is based on whether the true purpose is known to the respondents. A direct approach is non disguised in that the purpose of the project is disclosed to the respondents or is otherwise obvious to them from the questions asked.

The structured-direct survey, the most popular data collection method, involves administering a questionnaire. In a typical questionnaire, most questions are fixed-alternative questions that require the respondent to select from a predetermined set of responses. Consider, for example, the following question to measure attitude toward department stores:

Disagree Agree

Shopping in department stores in fun. 1 2 3 4 5

The survey method has several advantages. First, the questionnaire is simple to administer. Second, the data obtained are reliable because the responses are limited to the alternatives stated. The use of fixed-response questions reduces the variability in the results that may e caused by differences in interviewers. Finally, coding, analysis, and interpretation of data are relatively simple.

Disadvantages are that respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide the desired information. For example, consider questions about motivational factors. Respondents may not be consciously aware of their motives for choosing specific brands or shopping at specific department stores. Therefore, they may be unable to provide accurate answers to questions sensitive or personal. Also, structured questions and fixed-response alternatives may result in loss of validity for certain types of data such as beliefs and feelings. Finally, wording questions properly is not easy. Yet, despite these disadvantages, the survey approach is by far the most common method of primary data collection in marketing research.

STEPS INVOLVED IN DESIGNING SURVEY METHOD

1. Select and formulate research problem.
2. Select an appropriate survey method.
3. Design the survey method/ research design.
4. Conduct survey and collect data.
5. Analyze and report.

COVER NOTE

Researcher needs to send a polite short cover note, especially with mailed questionnaires and it should include the following:

• Introduction to the researcher.
• What the research is all about?
• Why is he conducting the study?
• What will happen with the results?
• Who to contact if respondent has any queries?
• How to return the questionnaire to the researcher?

CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEY

• Survey is conducted in a natural setting.
• Survey seeks responses directly form the respondents.
• Survey is widely used in non-experimental social science research.
• Often use questionnaire or interview method for data collection.
• Survey involves real world samples.
• Often it is quantitative method, but can also be qualitative.
• It is systematic, follows specific set of rules, formal and orderly logic of sequence.
• It is impartial, select sample units without any prejudice and preference.

PURPOSE OF SURVEY

• Information gathering: It collects information for a specific purpose. For example, pools, census, customer satisfaction, attitude, etc.
• Theory testing and building: Surveys are also used for the purpose of testing and building theory. For example, personality and social psychology theories.

ADVANTAGES OF SURVEY

• Access to wide range of participants.
• Collection of large amount of data.
• Maybe more ethical than experimental designs.

DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEY

• Lack of control.
• Data may be superficial.
• Costly to obtain representative data.

SURVEY METHODS CLASSIFIED BY MODE OF ADMINISTRATION

Survey questionnaire may be administered in four major modes: (1) telephone interviews, (2) personal interviews, (3) mail interviews, (4) electronic interviews. Telephone interviews may be further classified as traditional telephone interviews or computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI). Personal interviews may be conducted in the home, as mall-intercept interview, or as computer-assisted personal interviews (CAPI). The third major method, mail interviewing, takes the form of ordinary mail surveys or surveys conducted using mail panels. Finally, electronic interviews can be conducted via e-mail or administered on the Internet. Of these methods, telephone interviews are the most popular, followed by personal interviews and mail surveys. The use of electronic methods, especially Internet surveys, is growing at a fast pace.

TELEPHONE METHODS

Telephone survey is a process of collecting information from sample respondents by calling them over telephone. Surveying by telephone is the most popular interview method. Telephone interviews may be further classified as traditional telephone interviews or computer-assisted telephone interviews.

Traditional Telephone Interviews

Traditional telephone interview involve phoning a sample of respondents and asking them series of questions. The interviewer uses a series of questionnaire and records the responses with a pencil. Advances in telecommunication and technology have made nationwide telephone interviewing from a central location practical. Consequently, the use of local telephone interviewing has decreased in recent years.

Advantages

Ø People can usually be contacted faster over the telephone than with other methods.

Ø You can dial random telephone numbers when you do not have the actual telephone numbers of potential respondents.

Ø Skilled interviewer can often invite longer or more complete answers than people will give on their own to mail, e-mail surveys.

Disadvantages

Ø Many telemarketers have given legitimate research a bad name by claiming to be doing research when they start a sale call.

Ø The growing number of working women often means that no one is at home during the day. This limits calling time to a “window” of about 6-9 p.m.

Ø You cannot show sample products by phone.

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing

Computer-assisted telephone interviewing from a central location is now more popular than the traditional telephone method. Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATT) uses a computerized questionnaire administered to respondents over the telephone. A computerized questionnaire may be generated using a mainframe computer, a minicomputer, or a personal computer. The interviewer sits in front of personal terminal and wears a mini-headset. The computer replaces a paper and pencil questionnaire and the mini headset substitutes for a telephone. Upon command, the computer dials the telephone number to be called. When contact is made, the interviewer reads questions posed on the computer screen and records the respondent’s answers directly into the computer’s memory bank.

The computer systematically guides the interviewer. Only one question at a time appears on the screen. The computer checks the responses for appropriateness and consistency. It uses the responses as they are obtained to personalize the questionnaire. The data collection flows naturally and smoothly. Interviewing time is reduced, data quality enhanced, and the laborious steps in the data collection process, coding questionnaires and entering data into the computer, are eliminated. Because responses are entered directly into the computer, interim and update reports on data collection or results can be provided almost instantaneously.

Advantages

Ø It eliminates data entry and editing costs.

Ø Answers are more accurate to sensitive questions through a computer than to a person or paper questionnaire.

Ø Interviewer bias is eliminated. Different interviewers can ask questions in different ways, leading to different results. The computer asks the questions the same way every time.

Ø Ensuring skip patterns are accurately followed. The Survey System can ensure people are not asked questions they should skip based on their earlier answers. The automobile skips are more accurate than relying on an Interviewer reading a paper questionnaire.

Ø Response rates are usually higher as it looks novel and interesting to some people.

Disadvantages

Ø The interviewees must have access to a computer or it must be provided for them.

Ø As with mail surveys, computer-assisted telephone interviews may have serious response rate problems in populations due to literacy levels being low.

PERSONAL METHODS

An interview is called personal when the interviewer asks the questions face-to-face with the interviewee. Personal interviews may be conducted at home, as mall-intercept interviews, or as computer-assisted personal interviews (CAPI).

Personal In-Home Interviews

In personal in-home interviews, respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their homes. The interviewer’s task is to contact the respondents, ask the questions, and record the responses. In recent years, the use of personal in-home interviews has declined due to its high cost. Nevertheless, they are still used, particularly by syndicated firms.

Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews

In mall-intercept personal interviews, respondents are intercepted while they are shopping in mails and bought to test facilities in the malls. The interviewer then administers a questionnaire as in the in-home personal survey. The advantage of mall intercept interview is that it is more efficient for the respondent to come to the interviewer than for the interviewer to go to the respondent. This method has become increasingly popular and there are several hundred permanent mall research facilities.

Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)

In computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI), the respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the computer screen by using the keyboard or a mouse. There are several user friendly electronic packages that design questions that are easy for the respondent to understand. Help screen and courteous error messages are also provided. The colorful screens and on- and off-screen stimuli add to the respondent’s interest and involvement in the task. This method has been classified as a personal interview technique since an interviewer is usually present to serve as a host or hostess and to guide the respondents as needed. CAPI has been used to collect the data at shopping malls, product clinics, conferences and trade shows. One popular way in which CAPI is administered is through the use of kiosks.

Advantages

Ø The ability to let the interviewee see, feel and/or taste a product.

Ø The ability to find the target population. For example, you can find people who have seen a film much more easily outside a theater in which it is playing than by calling phone numbers at random.

Ø Longer interviews are sometimes tolerated. Particularly with in-home interviews that have been arranged in advance. People may be willing to talk longer face-to-face than to someone on the phone.

Disadvantages

Ø Personal interviews usually cost more per interview than other methods.

Ø Change in the characteristics of the population might make sample non-representative.

Mail interviews, the third major form of survey administration, can be conducted via ordinary mail and mail panel.

MAIL SURVEY

Mail Interviews

In the traditional mail interview, questionnaires are mailed to preselected potential respondent. A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, return envelope, and possibly an incentive. The respondents complete and return the questionnaires. There is no verbal interaction between the researcher and respondent.

However, before data collection can begin, the respondents need to be at least broadly identified. Therefore, an initial task is to obtain a valid mailing list. Mailing lists can be compiled from telephone directories, customer rosters, or association membership rolls, or purchased from publication subscription lists or commercial mailing list companies. Regardless of its source, a mailing list should be current and closely related to the population of interest. The researcher must also make decisions about the various elements of the mail interview package. Mail surveys are used for a variety of purposes, including measurement of consumer preferences.

Mail Panels

A mail panel consists of a large, nationally representative sample of households that have agreed to participate in periodic mail questionnaires and product tests. The households are compensated with various incentives. Data on the panel members are updated every year. Because of the panel members’ commitment, the response rates can approach 80%. Mail panels can be used to obtain information from the same respondents repeatedly.

Advantages

1. Easier to reach a large number of respondents throughout the country.
2. Since the interviewer is not present face to face, the influence of the interviewer on the respondent is eliminated.
3. This is the only kind of survey you can do if you have the names and addresses of the target population, but not their telephone numbers.
4. Mails surveys allow the respondents to answer at the leisure, rather than at the often inconvenient moment they are contacted for a phone or personal interview. For this reason they are not considered as intrusive as other kinds of interviews.
5. It saves a lot of costs when compared to other interviews.
6. There is no need to train Interviewers.
7. Personal and sensitive questions are well answered in this method.
8. The questionnaire can include pictures- something that is not possible over the phone.

Disadvantages

1. It is not possible when questions are difficult and complicated. For E.g. Do you believe in value price relationship
2. When the researcher is interested in a spontaneous response, this method is unsuitable. This is because thinking time allowed to the respondent will influence the answer. E.g. tell me spontaneously, what comes to your mind if I ask you about cigarette smoking?
3. In case of a mail questionnaire, it is not possible to verify whether the respondents have themselves filled in the questionnaire. If the questionnaire is directed towards the housewife say, to know her expenditure on kitchen items, she alone is supposed to answer it. Instead, if her husband answers the questionnaire, the answers may not be correct.
4. Any clarification required by the respondent regarding questions is not possible. E.g. Product profile, marginal rate etc may not be understood by the respondents.
5. If the answers are not correct, the researcher cannot probe further.
6. Poor response (30%) - not all will reply.
7. In populations of lower educational and literacy levels, response rates to mail surveys are often too small to be useful.

EMAIL SURVEYS

Electronic Methods

Electronic surveys can be conducted by email or administered on the Internet of the Web.

Email Interviews

To conduct an email survey, a list of email addresses is obtained. The survey is written within the body of the email message. The emails are sent out over the internet. Email surveys use pure text (ASCII) to represent questionnaires and can be received and responded to by anyone with an email address, whether or not they have access to the Web. Respondents type the answers to either close ended or open ended questions at designated places, click on “reply”. Responses are data entered and tabulated.

Advantages

1. An email questionnaire can gather several thousand responses within a day or two.
2. There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been compiled.
3. Pictures and sound files can be attached.
4. The novelty element of an email survey often stimulates higher response levels than ordinary mail surveys.

Limitations

1. Researcher must possess a list of email addresses.
2. Some people will respond several times or pass questionnaire along to friends to answer.
3. Many people dislike unsolicited email even more than unsolicited regular mail.
4. Findings cannot be generalized with email surveys. People who have email are different from those who do not, even when matched on demographic characteristics, such as age and gender.
5. Email surveys cannot automatically skip questions or randomize question.
6. Some email software products limit the length of the body of an email message.

Internet Interviews

In contrast to email interviews, Internet or web surveys use hypertext markup language (HTML), language of the web, and are posted on the web site. Respondents may be recruited over the internet from potential respondents databases maintained by the marketing research firm, or they can be recruited by conventional methods (mail, telephone).Respondents are asked to go to a particular web location to complete the survey. Many times, respondents are not recruited; they happen to be visiting the Web site where the survey is posted and they are invited to participate in the survey. Either all or every nth web site visitor is allowed to participate. Additional survey stimuli such as graphs, images, animations and links to other web pages may be integrated into or around the survey. The responses are collected in an adjoining database. The data require some processing before they can be tabulated or used in a statistical package. All these factors contribute to higher quality data.

Internet research can be just as representative and effective as other traditional methods, especially as the internet population continues to grow. Problems of conducting research over the internet must be effectively addressed and resolved, just as the problems with traditional research have been and continue to be.

Advantages

1. Web page surveys are extremely fast. A questionnaire posted on a popular website can gather several thousand responses within a few hours. Many people who will respond to an email invitation to take a web survey will do so the first day, and most will do so within a few days.
2. There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been completed.
3. Pictures can be shown. Some web survey software can also show video and play sound.
4. Web page questionnaires can use complex question skipping logic, randomizations and other features which is not possible with paper questionnaires. These features can assure better data.
5. Web page questionnaires can use colors, fonts and other formatting options not possible in most mail surveys.
6. A significant number of people will give more honest answers to questions about sensitive topics, such as drug use or sex, when giving their answers to a computer, instead of to a person or on paper.
7. On an average, people give longer answers to open ended questions on web page questionnaires than they do on other kinds of self administered surveys.

Disadvantages

1. Current use of internet is far from universal. Internet surveys do not reflect the population as a whole. This is true even if a sample of internet users is selected to match the general population in terms of age, gender and other demographics.
2. People can easily quit in the middle of the questionnaire. They are not likely to complete a long questionnaire on the web as they would be if they were talking with a good interviewer.
3. Depending on your software, there is often no control over people responding multiple times to bias the results.

A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF SURVEY METHODS

Flexibility of data: Flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire. The personal interview, whether conducted in the home as mail intercept interview, allows the highest flexibility of data collection. Because the respondent and the interviewer meet face to face, the interviewer can administer complex questionnaire, explain and clarify difficult questions, and even utilize unstructured techniques.

The traditional telephone interview, by contrast, allows only moderate flexibility, because it is more difficult to use unstructured techniques, ask complex questions, or obtain in-depth answers to open – ended questions over the telephone. CATI, CAPI and internet surveys allow somewhat greater flexibility because the questionnaire is administered in an interactive mode. The researcher can use various question formats, personalize the questionnaire, and handle complex skip patterns. Because these modes do not allow for interactions between the interviewer and the respondent, mail survey, mail panels and e-mail surveys have low flexibility.

Diversity of questions: The diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey depends upon the degree of interactions the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions. A wide variety of questions can be asked in personal interview because the respondents can see the questionnaire and interviewer is present to clarify ambiguities. Thu, in- home mail intercept, and CAPI allow for diversity. In traditional telephone interviews and CATI, the respondent cannot see the questions while answering and this limits the diversity of questions.

Use of physical stimuli: Often it is helpful or necessary to use physical stimuli such as the product, a product prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the interview. Mail surveys and mail panels are moderate on this dimension, because sometimes it is possible to mail the facilitating aids or even product samples. Internet surveys also moderately suitable. The use of physical stimuli is limited in the traditional telephone interviews, CATI, and also in e- mail surveys.

Control of Data Collection Environment: The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent answers the questionnaire is another factor that differentiates the various survey modes. Personal interviews conducted a central locations offer the greatest degree of environmental control. The traditional telephone and CATI offer more moderate control. The interviewer cannot see the environment in which the interview is being conducted, but she or he can sense the background conditions and encourage the respondents to be attentive and involved. In mail surveys and panels, email, and internet surveys, the researcher has little control over the environment.

Sample control: Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample efficiently and effectively. At least in principle, in some personal interviews offer the best units are interviewed, who is interviewed, the degree of the participation of other members of the household, and many other aspects of data collection. In practice, to achieve a high degree of control the researcher has to overcome several problems. It is difficult to find respondents at home during the day because most people work outside the home.

Mail – intercept interviews allow only a moderate degree of sample control. Although the interviewer has control which respondents to intercept, the choice is limited to the mall shoppers and frequent shoppers have a great probability of being included. Also potential respondents can intentionally avoid or initiate contact with the interviewer. Compared to mall intercept concept, CAPI offer slightly better control because sampling quotas can be set and respondents randomized automatically.

Moderate to high sampling can be achieved with traditional telephone interviews and CATI. Telephone offers access to geographically dispersed respondents and hard to reach areas. These procedures depend upon the sampling frame a list of population units with their telephone number.

The random digit dialing (rdd) technique is used to overcome the bias of unpublished and recent numbers.

CONTROL OF FIELD FORCE

The field force consists of interviews and supervisors involved in data collection. Because they require no such personnel, mail surveys, mail panels, e-mails and internet surveys eliminate field force problems. Traditional telephone interviews, CATI, mall intercept and CAPI all offer moderate degrees of control because the interviews are conducted at a central location, making supervision relatively simple. In home personal interviews are problematic in this respect. Since many interviewers work in many different locations, continual supervisors are impractical.

QUANITITY OF DATA

In-home personal interviews allow the researcher to collect large amounts of data. The social relationship between the interviewer and the respondents, as well as the home environment, motivates the respondent to spend more time in the interview. Less effort is required of the respondent in a personal interview than in a telephone or mail interview. The interviewer record answer to open-ended questions and provides visual aids to help with lengthy and complex scales.

Mail surveys also yield moderate amounts of data. Fairly long questionnaires can be used, since short questionnaire have not been shown to generate higher response rates than long ones. The same for e-mail internet surveys, although the internet is a better medium in this respect. Mail panels, on other hand, can generate large amounts of data because of the special relationship between the panel members and sponsoring organization.

Traditional telephone interviews and CATI result in the most limited quantities of data. They tend to be shorter than other surveys, because respondents can easily terminate the telephone conversation at their own discretion. This suggests telephone interviews may be conducted for a longer duration than currently the practice.

RESPONSE RATE

Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed. Personal, in-home, mall intercept and computer assisted interviews yield the highest response rate. Problem caused by not-at-homes can often be resolved by calling back different times. Telephone interviews, traditional and CATI, yield response rates between 40 and 60 percent. These modes also suffer from not-at-homes or no-answers. Internet surveys have the poorest response rates, even lower than e-mail surveys. This is due to the fact that fact that some respondents may have access to e-mail but not to web and accessing the web requires more effort and skill. Respondents generally need to be connected to the internet while completing a web surveys they may not be offline, as with e-mail surveys.

• Either prepaid or promised monetary incentives.
• Increase in the amount of monetary incentives.
• Non monetary premiums and rewards.
• Preliminary notification.
• Foot-in-the door techniques. These are multiple request strategies. The first request is relatively small, and all or most people agree to comply. The small request is followed by a large request, called the critical request, which is actually the target behavior.
• Personalization
• Follow-up letters.

PERCEIVED ANONYMITY

Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents perceptions that the interviewer or the researcher will not discern their identities. Perceived anonymity of the respondent is high in mail surveys, mail panels, and internet surveys because there is no contact with an interviewer while responding. It is low in Personal interviews due to face to face contact with the interviewer. Traditional telephone interviews and CATI fall in the middle. It is also moderate with e-mail. Although there is no contact with the interviewer, respondents know that their names can be located on the return e-mail.

Social Desirability/sensitive Information: Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true. Because mail surveys, mail panels, and internet surveys do not involve any social interaction between the interviewer and the respondent, they are least susceptible to social desirability. Evidence suggests that such methods are good for obtaining sensitive information such as that related to financial or personal behavior. Traditional telephone interviews and CATI are moderately good at avoiding socially desirable responses. They are good for obtaining sensitive information, because the respondents have the perception that they are not committing to anything in writing over the telephone. Email is only moderately good for controlling social desirability and obtaining sensitive information, given the respondents’ awareness that their names can be located on the return email.

Potential for Interviewer Bias: An interviewer can Bias the results of the survey by the manner in which he or she:

1. Selects respondents

2. Ask research questions,

3. Records answers.

The extent of the interviewer’s role determines the potential for Bias. Traditional telephone interviewers and CATI are less susceptible, although the potential is still there.

Speed: The Internet is by far the fastest method of obtaining data from a large number of respondents. First, there is the speed with which a questionnaire can be created, distributed to respondents, and the data returned. Since printing, mailing, and data keying delays are eliminated, the researcher can have data in hand in hand within hours of writing an internet questionnaire. The email survey is also fast, although slower than the internet since greater time is needed to compile an e-mail list and data entry is also required,

Cost: For large samples, the cost of internet surveys is the lowest. Printing, mailing, keying, and interviewer cost are eliminated, and the incremental costs of each respondents are typically low, so studies with large numbers of respondents can be done at substantial savings compared to mail, telephone, or personal surveys. Personal interviewers tend to be most expensive mode of data collection per completed response. However, relative costs depend on the subject of inquiry and the procedures adopted.

SELECTION OF SURVEY METHODS

Depending on factors such as information requirements, budgetary constraints (time & money) and respondent characteristics, none, one, two, or even all methods may be appropriate. It must be noted that various data collection modes are not mutually exclusive. Rather they are employed in a complementary fashion to build on each other’s strengths and compensate for each other’s weaknesses. The researcher can employ these methods in combination and develop creative methods.

Illustration: In a classic project, interviewers distributed the product, self-administered questionnaires and return envelops to respondents. Traditional telephone interviews were used for follow-up. Combining the data collection modes resulted in telephone co operations from 97 percent of the respondents. Furthermore 82 percent of the questionnaires were returned by mail. We can understand the selection of survey modes and use of combination of survey methods by the following examples respectively

Ø Project Research: Personal In-Home Interviews

In a departmental store, personal in-home interviews were utilized, for a number of reasons. Many diverse questions were asked. Some questions were complex and a relatively large amount of data had to be collected. Trained students were used as interviewers, thus reducing cost.

Telephone interview methods were not used due to complexity of questions and amount of data needed. The electronic methods were not chosen as many people in the target market did not have access to internet when the survey was conducted.

Ø Real Research: P&G Tide: Getting Intelligent With Intelliseek.

Intelliseek’s Brandpulse Direct is a new method to gather and solicit marketing information and opinions. Companies can use this to create a friendly interface when vendors hit the “contact us” link on their homepage and conduct continuous polls and satisfaction surveys. This can be used to identify new pockets of demographic interest and profiling with post-transaction surveys. The Brandpulse Direct gives brand-managers, marketers and webmasters flexibility to collect critical customer information to market smarter, better and faster to the consumers who determine market success. E.g. P&G Tide introduced Tide Bar in Indian market after considering the opinion of its Indian users.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.

Importance and limitations of questionnaire in MR

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of data collection. Questionnaires are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical.

Characteristics of questionnaire

• It must be simple. The respondents should be able to understand the questions.
• It must generate replies that can be recorded by the interviewer.
• It should be specific, so as to allow the interviewer to keep the interviewer to keep the interview to the point.
• It should be well arranged, to facilitate analysis and interpretation.
• It must keep the respondent interested throughout.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

1. Structured and non disguised

2. Structured and disguised

3. Non structured and disguised

4. Non structured and non disguised

1. Structured and non disguised questionnaire:

Here, questions are structured so as to obtain the facts. The interviewer will ask the questions strictly in accordance with the prearranged order. For example, what are the strengths of soap A in comparison with soap B?

· Cost is less

· Lasts longer

· Better fragrance

· Produces more lather

· Available in more convenient sizes

Structured and non disguised questionnaire is widely used in market research. Questions are presented with exactly the same wording and same order to all respondents. For standardizing the question is to ensure that all respondents reply the same question. The purpose of the question is clear. The researcher wants the respondents to choose one of the five options given above. This type of questionnaire is easy to administer. The respondents have no difficulty in answering, because it is structured, the frame of reference is obvious.

In a non disguised type, the purpose of the questionnaire is known to the respondent. Example: “Subjects attitude towards Cyber laws and the need for government legislation to regulate it”.

Certainly, not needed at present

Certainly not needed

I can’t say

Very urgently needed

Not urgently needed

2. Structured and disguised questionnaire:

This type of questionnaire is least used in marketing research. This type of questionnaire is used to know the people’s attitude, when a direct undisguised question produces a bias. In this type of questionnaire, what comes out is “what does the respondent know” rather than what he feels. Therefore, the endeavour in this method is to know the respondent’s attitude.

Currently, the “Office of Profit” Bill is:

(a) In the Lok Sabha for approval.

(b) Approved by the Lok Sabha and pending in the Rajya Sabha.

(c) Passed by both the Houses, pending the presidential approval.

(d) The bill is being passed by the President.

Depending on which answer the respondent chooses, his knowledge on the subject is classified. In a disguised type, the respondent is not informed of the purpose of the questionnaire. Here the purpose is to hide “what is expected from the respondent?”

Example 1: “tell me your opinion about Mr. Ben’s healing effect show conducted at Bangalore?”

Example 2: “what do you think about the Babri Masjid demolition?”

3. Non structured and disguised questionnaire:

The main objective is to conceal the topic of enquiry by using a disguised stimulus. Though the stimulus is standardized by the researcher, the respondent is allowed to answer in an unstructured manner. The assumption made here is that individual’s reaction is an indication of respondent’s basic perception. Projective techniques are examples of non structured disguised technique. The techniques involve the use of a vague stimulus, which an individual is asked to expand or describe or build a story, three common types under this category are (a) Word association (b) Sentence completion (c) Story telling.

4. Non structured and non disguised questionnaire:

Here the purpose of the study is clear, but the responses to the question are open ended. Example: “How do you feel about the Cyber law currently in practice and its need for further modification?” The initial part of the question is consistent. After presenting the initial question, the interview becomes very unstructured as the interviewer probes more deeply. Subsequent answers by the respondents determine the direction the interviewer takes next. The question asked by the interviewer varies from person to person. This method is called “the depth interview”. The major advantage of this method is the freedom permitted to the interviewer. By not restricting the respondents to a set of replies, the experienced interviewers will be above to get the information from the respondent fairly and accurately. The main advantage of this method of interviewing is that it takes time, and the respondents may not cooperate. Another disadvantage is that coding of open ended questions may pose a challenge. For example: When a researcher asks respondent “Tell me something about your experience in this hospital”. The answer may be “Well, the nurses are slow to attend and the doctor is rude”. ‘Slow’ and ‘rude’ are different qualities needing separate coding. This type of interviewing is extremely helpful in exploratory studies.

Types	Characteristics
Structured - disguised	· The same question is posed to each respondent · Administering the questionnaire and post administration work is simple i.e. coding tabulating, etc. is easy. · This type of questionnaire is least used in market research. · Respondent’s bias is minimized.
Unstructured – disguised	· This type of questionnaire is very commonly used for focus group discussions. · This is difficult to analyze, code etc. · No fixed set of questions. · The inner self (why) of an individual is researched. E.g.: motivation research
Unstructured – undisguised	· No fixed questions. · Suitable for conducting depth interview. · Subject matter can be questioned in great detail. · Coding, tabulating etc. are difficult not a very frequently used method.
Structured – undisguised	· Fixed set of questions to every respondent · Inappropriate when researcher wants to probe deeper · Easy to administer coding, tabulating is easy · Due to structuring and undisguised nature of the questionnaire, there is no possibility of the respondent misunderstanding the question. This is the most commonly used method.

PROCESS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING

Step 1: determine what information is required

The first question to be asked by the market f researcher is what type of information does he need from the survey”? This is valid because if he omits some information on relevant and vital aspects, his research is not likely to be successful. On the other hand, if he collects information which is not relevant, he is wasting his time and money.

At this stage information required and the scope of research should be clear. Therefore, the steps to be followed at the planning stages are:

1. Decide on the topic for research

2. Get additional information on the research issue, from secondary data and exploratory research. The exploratory research will suggest “what are the relevant variables?”

3. Gather what has been the experience with similar study

4. The type of information required. There are several types of information such as

o Awareness

o Facts

o Opinions

o Attitudes

o Future plans

o Reasons

Facts are usually sought out in marketing research

Example: which television Programme did you see last Saturday? This requires a reasonably good memory and the respondent may not remember. This is known as recall loss. Therefore, questioning the distant past should be avoided. Memory of events depends on

· Importance of the events, and

· Whether it is necessary for the respondent to remember.

In the above case, both the factors are not fulfilled. Therefore, the respondent does not remember. On the contrary, a birth day or wedding anniversary of individuals is remembered without effort since the event is important. Therefore, the researcher should be careful while asking questions about the past. First, he must make sure that the respondent has the answer.

Mode of collecting the data

The questionnaire can be used to collect information either through personal interview, mail or telephone. The method chosen depends on the information required and also the type of respondent. If the information is to be collected from illiterate individuals, a questionnaire would be the wrong choose.

Step 2: different types of questionnaire

Ø Structured and non disguised

Ø Structured and disguised

Ø Non- structured and disguised

Ø Non- Structured and non disguised

Ø Structured and non disguised questionnaire

Here questions are structured so as to obtain the facts. The interviewer will ask questions strictly in accordance with the prearranged order. For example, what is the strength of soap A in comparison with soap B?

• Cost is less
• Lasts longer
• Better fragrance
• Produces more lather
• Available in more convenient size

Ø Structured and non disguised questionnaire is widely used in market research.

Questions are presented with exactly the same wording and same order to all respondents. The reasons for standardizing the question are to ensure that all the respondents reply the same question. The purpose of the question is clear. The researcher wants the respondent to choose of the five options given above. This type of questionnaire is easy to administer. The respondents have no difficulty in answering, because it is structured, the frame of reference is obvious.

In a non disguised type, the purpose of the questionnaire is known to the respondent.

Example: “Subject’s attitude towards Cyber laws and the need for government legislations to regulate it”

Certainly not needed at present

Certainly not needed

I can’t say

Very urgently needed

Ø Structured and disguised questionnaire

This type of questionnaire is least used in marketing research. This type of questionnaire is used to know the peoples attitude, when a direct undisguised question produces a bias. In this type of questionnaire, what comes out is “what does the respondents know” rather than what he feels, therefore, the respondent’s attitude.

Currently, the” office of profit” Bill is:

• In the Lok Sabha for approval
• Approved by the Lok sabha and pending in the Rajya sabha
• Passed by both the houses, pending the presidential approval
• The bill is being passed by the president

Depending on which answer the respondent chooses, his knowledge on the subject is classified.

In a disguised type, the respondent is not informed of the purpose of the questionnaire here the purpose is to hide ‘’what is expected from the respondent?”

Example 1: tell me your opinion about Mr. Bens haling effect show conducted at Bangalore

Example 2: what do you think about the Babri Masjid Demolition?

Ø Non structured and disguised questionnaire

The main objective is to conceal the topic of enquiry by using a disguised stimulus .Though the stimulus is standardized by the researcher, the respondents is allowed to answer in an unstructured manner. The assumption made here is that individual’s reaction is an indication of respondent’s basic perception. Projective techniques are examples of non – structured disguised technique. The techniques involve the use of a vague stimulus, which an individual is asked to expand or describe or build a story, three common types under this category are

• Word association
• Sentence completion
• Story telling

Ø Non structured and non disguised questionnaire

Here the purpose of the study is clear, but the responses to the question are open – ended. Example: “how do you feel about the cyber law currently in practice and its need for further modification,”? The initial part of the question is consistent. After presenting the initial question, the interview becomes very unstructured as the interviewer probes more deeply. Subsequent answers by the respondent determine the direction the interviewer takes next. The question asked by the interviewer varies from person to person. This method is called “the depth interview. By not restricting the respondents to a set of replies, the experienced interviewers will be above to get the information from the respondent fairly and accurately. The main disadvantage of this method of interviewing is that it takes time, and the respondents may not cooperate. Another disadvantage is that coding of open – ended questions may pose a challenge. For example: when a researcher asks the respondent “tell me something about your experience in this hospital”. The answer may be “well, the nurses are slow to attend the doctor is rude. ‘slow’ and rude, are different qualities needing separate coding. This type of interviewing is extremely helpful in exploratory studies.

STEP 3 Types of questions:

· Open ended questions: these are questions where respondents are free to answer in their own words. E.g. what factors do you consider while buying a suit? If multiple choices are given it could be colour, price, brand etc. but some respondents may mention attributes which may not occur to the researcher.

Therefore open ended questions are useful in exploratory research where all the possible alternatives are explored. The greatest disadvantage of the open ended questions is that the researcher ahs to note down the answer of the respondents verbatim. Therefore there is a likely hood of the researcher failing to record some of the information.

· Dichotomous questions: these questions have only 2 answers ‘ Yes’ or ‘no’, ‘true’ or ‘false’ ‘use’ or ‘don’t use’.

Do you use toothpaste...yes….. No……

There is no third answer. However sometimes there can be a third answer.

These questions are most convenient to answer a major disadvantage is that it limits the respondents answers. This may lead to measurement error.

· Close ended questions: there are 2 basic types of these questions.

1) Make one or more choice among the given alternatives.

2) Rate the alternatives.

Choice among the alternatives: hich of the following consumers are most likely to use the product based on the commercial.

Old or young

Married or single etc.

Rating scale:1) Please tell your reaction to the commercial. A great commercial would like to see again

Just so like other commercial.

Another bad commercial etc.

2) Based on what you saw in the commercial, how interested do you feel, you would be buying the products?

Definitely.

Probably I would buy.

I may or may not buy.

Probably I would not buy.

Definitely I would no buy.

Close ended questionnaire are easy to answer. It requires less effort on the part of the interviewer. Tabulation and analysis is easier. There are lesser errors, since the same questions are asked to everyone. The time taken to respond is lesser. We an compare the answer of one respondent to another respondent.

One basic criticism of close ended questionnaires is that middle alternatives are not included in this, such as “don’t know”. This will force the respondents so choose among the given alternative.

STEP 4: WORDINGS OF QUESTIONS.

Wording of particular questions could have large impact on how the respondent interprets them. Even a small shift in the wording could alter the respondent’s answer.

Example 1: “Do you think anything should be done to make it easier for people to pay their phone bill, electricity bill and water bill under one roof”?

Example 2: “Don’t you think something might be done to make it easier for people to pay their phone bill, electricity bill, water bill under one roof”?

A change of just one word as above can generate different responses by respondents.

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions

These are questions, in which the respondent can agree with one part of the question, but not agree with the other or cannot answer without making a particular assumption.

Example: “Are you happy with the price and quality of branded shampoo?” [Yes] [No]

Avoid Leading and Loading Questions

I. Leading Questions: A leading question is one that suggests the answer to the respondent. The question itself will influence the answer to the respondent. The question will influence the answer, when respondents get an idea that the data is being collected by a company. The respondents have a tendency to respond positively.

II. Loaded Questions: A leading question is also known as a loaded question. In a loaded question, special emphasis is given to a word or a phrase, which acts as a lead to respondent.

Example: “ Do you own a Kelvinator refrigerator.” A better question would be “what brand of refrigerator do you own?

v Are the questions confusing? If there is a question unclear or confusing, then the respondent becomes more biased rather than getting enlightened.

v Applicability: “Is the question applicable to al respondents?” respondents may try to answer a question even though they don’t qualify to do so or may lack from any meaningful opinions.

Avoid implicit assumptions:

An implicit alternative is one that is expressed in the opinion. Consider the foolowing 2 questions:

Would you like to have a job, if available?

Would you prefer to have a job, or do you prefer to do the domestic work?

Even though we may say that these two questions look similar they vary widely. The difference is that Q2 makes explicit the alternative implied in Q1

Split ballot technique:

This is a procedure used wherein (1) the question is split into two halves and (2) different sequencing of questions is administered to each half. There are occasions when a single version of questions may not derive the correct answer and the choice is not obvious to the respondents.

Example: why do you use ayurvedic soap? One respondent might say “ayurvedic soap is better for the skin. Another may say “because the doctor recommended”.

Complex questions:

In which of the following do you like to park your liquid funds?

1) Debenture

2) Preferential share.

3) Equity linked M.F.

4) I.P.O

5) Fixed deposit.

If this question is posed to the general public, they not know the meaning of liquid fund. Most of the respondents will guess may and tick one of them.

· Are the questions to long? Generally as a thumb rule, it is advisable to keep the number of words in a question not exceeding 20. The question given below is too long for the respondent to comprehend, leave alone answer.

Participating at the expense of accuracy:

Sometimes the respondent may not have the information that is needed by the researchers.

Example 1: the husband is asked a question “how much does your family spend on groceries in a week?” unless the respondent does the grocery shopping himself, he will not know how much has been spent. In a situation like this, it will be helpful to ask a ‘filtered question’. An example of a filtered question can be “who buys the groceries in your family?

STEP 5: Sequence and Layout

Some guidelines for sequencing the questionnaire are as follows

Divide the questionnaire into 3 parts:

1) Basic information

2) Classification

3) Identification information

Items such as age, gender, education etc are questioned in the classification section.

The identification part involves body of the questionnaire. Always move from general to specific questions to the topic. This is known as FUNNEL sequence. Sequences of questions are illustrated below:

1) Which TV shows do you watch?

Sports…………. News……..

2) Which of the following are you most interested in?

Sports……….. News………

Music……….. Cartoon………

3) Which show did you watch last week?

World cup foot ball……….

Bourn vita Quiz contest………….

Tom and Jerry cartoon show…………

Layout: How the questionnaire looks o appears.

Layout 1: How old is your bike?

……….Less than 1 year………1 to 2 years……..2 to 4 years…….more than 4 years.

Layout 2: How old is your bike?

……..Less than 1 year

………1 to 2 years

………2 to 4 years

……..more than 4 years

Step 6: Pre-testing of questionnaire

Pre testing of questionnaire is done to detect any flaws that might be present. For example, the word used by the researcher must convey the same meaning to the respondents. Are instructions clear skip questions clear? One of the prime conditions for pre-testing is that the sample chosen for pre testing should b similar to the respondents who are ultimately going to participate.

How many questions to b asked? The questionnaire should not be too long as the response will be poor. However, the researcher should consider that if he were the respondent, how he would react to a lengthy questionnaire. One way of deciding the length of the questionnaire is to calculate the time taken to complete the questionnaire.

Step 7: Revise and Preparation of final questionnaire

Final questionnaire may be prepared after pre testing the questionnaire with the small group of respondents. Questionnaire should be revised for the following:

I. To correct the spellings

II. To place the questions in proper order to avoid the contextual bias.

III. To remove the words which are not familiar to the respondents

IV. To add or remove questions arise in the process of pre test, if any.

V. To purge the words with double meaning.etc

MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE - ADVANTAGES

1. Easier to reach a larger number of respondents throughout the country.
2. since the interviewer is not present face to face , the influence of interviewer on the respondent is eliminated
3. Where the questions asked are such that they cannot be answered immediately, and needs some thinking on the part of the respondent can think over leisurely and give the answer.
4. Saves cost (cheaper than interview).
5. No need to train interviewers.
6. Personal and sensitive questions are well answered.

LIMITATIONS

1. It is not suitable when questions are difficult and complicated .Example: “Do you believe in value price relationship”?
2. When the researcher is interested in a spontaneous response, this method is unsuitable. Because thinking time allowed to the respondent will influence the answer. Example: “Tell me spontaneously, what comes to your mind if I ask you about cigarette smoking”.
3. In case of mail questionnaire, it is not possible to verify whether the respondent himself/herself has filled the questionnaire. If the questionnaire is directed towards the housewife, say, to know her expenditure on kitchen items, she alone is supposed to answer it. Instead, if her husband answers the questionnaire, the answer may not be correct.
4. Any clarification required by the respondents regarding questions is not possible. Example: Prorated discount, product profile, marginal rate etc., may not be understood by the respondents.
5. If the answers are not correct, the researcher cannot probe further.
6. Poor response (30%) - Not all reply.

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATION FOR THE PREPARATION OF MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE

1. It should be shorter than the questionnaire used for a personal interview.
2. The wording should be extremely simple.
3. If a lengthy questionnaire has to be made, first write a letter requesting the cooperation of the respondents.
4. Provide clear guidance, wherever necessary.
5. Send a pre-addressed and stamped envelope to receive the reply.

SYSTEM APPROACH TO DATA COLLECTION

Define research problem

Can it be solved with the present Experience of the researcher?

Search internal secondary data

Is it sufficient to solve the problem?

No↓

Search external secondary data

It is sufficient to take the decision

No↓

		Search for primary data and determine appropriate method and instrumental for data collection
Collect the data

Is it feasible to collect the right primary data?

Analyze the data

Take decision

No ↓

Suspend the research work

QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION - INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research is used to analyse those data which cannot be quantified. Qualitative research is used in exploratory research. The number of respondents covered in this type of research is small compared to quantitative research.

Quantitative vs. qualitative research

These two research methods vary in a number of ways. They vary in terms of

1. Measurability criteria

2. Features

3. Characteristics

Quantitative Research

Measurability: Quantitative data is measurable, for example, size of market, rate of the product, usage, etc.

Features

1. Data collected is numerical in nature.

2. Data collection methods are:

a. Mail questionnaire

b. Personal interview

c. Telephonic interview

Characteristics

1. Sample size used is very large.

2. Structured questionnaire is used for data collection.

Qualitative Research

Measurability: Not possible or difficult to measure.

Features: It is a kind of exploratory research.

Characteristics:

1. Unstructured questionnaire is used.

2. Sample size is usually small.

Qualitative Research Methods/Techniques

There are 4 Techniques in Qualitative Research. They are:

1. Depth Interview

2. Delphi Technique

3. Focus Group

4. Projective Technique

5. Protocol Analysis

1. Depth Interview

Unstructured, direct interview is known as a depth interview. Here, the interviewer will continue to ask probing questions of like, ‘what did you mean by that statements?’, ‘why did you feel this way?’ etc until he is satisfied that he has obtained the information he wants. The unstructured interview is free from restrictions imposed by a formal list of questions. The interview may be conducted in a casual and informal manner in which the flow if the conversation determines what questions are to be asked and the order in which they should be asked.

Advantages

1) The primary advantage of the depth interview technique is its ability to discover motivations. Marketing decisions like the choice of product, methods of selling and advertising appeals, etc., must be decided only after receiving feedback from customer.

2) The second advantage of the depth interview procedure is that it encourages respondents to express any ideas they have.

3) The third advantage is that it provides a lot of flexibility to the interviewer. We have a two-way communication where both the interviewer and the interviewee contribute to the knowledge gained.

Limitations

1) There are number of weaknesses in the depth interviewing approach. First of all, depth interview takes longer than a typical structured questionnaire filling. It may lead to respondents fatigue and hence may lead to biased response.

2) The second weakness of the depth interview is the lack of systematic structure for interpretations of the information obtained. This requires a trained psychoanalyst. It is difficult to find the qualified and trained people for conducting depth interview.

3) Another difficulty is that no quantifiable data is obtained in the depth interviewing process. This means that human judgment is involved in summarizing the findings. Different results will often be obtained by different people in the same situation. As a result, there is little or no opportunity for verification. Flexibility on the part of the interviewer is sometimes a major weakness.

2. Delphi Technique

This is a process where a group of experts in the field gather together. They may have to reach a consensus on forecasts. Sometimes the judgments may be made by some group members who have strong personalities. In the Delphi approach, the group members are asked to make individual judgments about a particular subject, say ‘sales forecast’. These judgments are compiled and returned to the group members, so that they can compare their previous judgment with those of others. Then they are given an opportunity to revise their judgments, especially if it differs from the others. They can say why their judgment is accurate, even if it differs from that of the other. After 5 to 6 rounds of interaction, the group members reach conclusion.

Advantages

1) Forecasting can be made quickly and inexpensively.

2) Viewpoints of different sector people are weighed. Example, there may be policy makers, Entrepreneurs, Executive from industry, Government officials, etc., viewpoints of all these people are taken into consideration and weighed appropriately

3) If basic data is inadequate or not available, there is no other alternative to Delphi technique.

Limitations

1) Expert’s opinion and facts may be different.

2) Good and bad estimates are given equal weightage.

3. Focus Group Interview

They are the best known and most widely used type of indirect interviews. Here, a group of people jointly participate in an unstructured indirect interview conducted by a moderator. The group usually consists of six to ten people. In general, the selected persons have similar backgrounds. The moderator attempts to focus the discussion on the problem areas.

Focus groups are used primarily to provide background information and to generate hypothesis rather than to provide solution to problems. The areas of application include:

1) Development of new product concept.

2) The generation of ideas for improving established products.

3) Development of creative concepts in advertising.

Advantages

This technique provides more sophisticated data because of the interaction among members of the group.

It also offers others benefits of depth interviews and offers in addition the advantages of saving cost, time and resources during the data collection stage.

Limitations

As the samples are small and invariably non-probabilistic, extrapolations of findings is not permitted.

Responses of individual members are not independent, and are influenced by what others have to say. Some respondents dominate the proceedings and try to force their opinion on others and some are very shy or nervous, and have very little or nothing to say, though they may feel strongly on the subject. The results of group interviews are difficult to quantify since they are unstructured.

The key component of a successful focus group interview is the skill of the group moderator (interviewer). By a carefully guiding the discussion, avoiding dominance by a few group members and keeping the discussion focused on the topic of interest, a moderator can obtain valuable data from the participants.

Indirect Interviews

The direct questioning of respondents may not yield the desired results, due to the fact that the respondent is usually unable and unwilling to give accurate answers often to direct questions. To solve this, a number of techniques have been devised to obtain information by indirect means. Most of these interviewing techniques employ the principle of projection. That is, the respondent is given a non-personal, ambiguous situation and is required to respond. These techniques include the word association, sentence completion tests, interpretations of pictorial representation and other devices-that have been developed as means of inducing people to project their feelings. They have been most widely used for finding out attitude products such as automobiles, soaps and detergents, cigarettes, food products and beverages. Indirect interview are commonly referred to as projective techniques.

4. Projective Techniques

Projective Techniques (Indirect method of gathering information/indirect interview) are unstructured and involve indirect form of questioning.

In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behaviour of users, rather than describe their own behaviour. In interpreting the behaviour of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivation and feeling into the situation.

Two types of projective techniques are available:

1) An ambiguous stimulus is presented to respondents.

2) In reacting to the stimulus, the respondents will directly reveal their own feeling.

The general categories of projective techniques are:

1) Word association test

2) Completion technique

3) TAT, and

4) Cartoon test

1) Word association test

This test consists of presenting a series of stimulus words to the respondents, who is asked to answer quickly with the first word that comes to his mind. The respondent, by answering quickly, gives the word that he or she associates most closely with the stimulus word.

E.g. what brand of detergent comes to your mind first, when I mention of an expensive cloth?

· Surf

· Tide

· Key

· Ariel

2) Completion technique

· Sentence completion

· Story completion

· Sentence completion: Here the respondents have to finish a set of incomplete sentences.

E.g. suppose you want to study the attitude towards a periodical:

a) A person who reads Women’s Era periodical is …..

b) Business World periodical appeals to ….

c) Outlook periodical is read by …..

d) Investor periodical is mostly liked by ….

· Story completion: A situation is described to a respondent who is asked to complete the story based on his opinion and attitude. This technique will reveal the interest of the respondent, but it is difficult to interpret.

E.g. Mr. X belongs to the upper-middle class. He received a telephone call, where the caller said that, “I am from globe travels. Sir, I want to tell you about our recent offer, that is, if you travel to the US this summer, you will get two tickets free by the year end to fly to the Far East.

What was Mr. X’s Reaction? Why?

3) Thematic apperception Test (TAT)

Definition: TAT is a projective technique. It is used to measure the attitude and perception of the individual. Some picture cards are shown to the respondents. The respondent is required to tell the story by looking at the picture. When the subjects start telling the story, the researcher notices the respondents’ expression, pauses and emotions to draw the inference.

Administration: TAT is administered to individuals in an atmosphere free from interruptions. The usual number of cards shown varies between 10 and 14. The original TAT considered of 31 cards divided into 3 categories viz, for use of with men or women or for use with subjects of either sex.

The subject is then instructed to tell a story about a picture on each card with specific instructions to include a description of the event in the picture and the developments that led to the event, the thoughts and feelings of people in the picture and the outcome of the story. The examiner keeps the cards in a pile, face down in the front; gives the respondent one card at a time, and asks the respondents to place each card face down as the story is completed. Administering the TAT usually takes about an hour.

Recording: Murry’s original practice was to take notes by hand on the subject’s responses, including his/hers non-verbal behaviours. Research has indicated, however that a great deal of significance material is lost when notes are recorded in this way. As a result, some examiners now use a tape recorder to record the respondent’s answers. Another opinion involves asking the respondent to write down his/her answers.

Interpretations: In interpreting responses to the TAT, examiners typically focus their attention on one of the three areas: the content of the stories that the respondents tells; the feeling or tone of the stories; or the respondents’ behavior apart from responses. These behaviours may include verbal remarks as well as non-verbal actions or signs. The story content usually reveals the respondents’ attitudes, fantasies, wishes, inner conflicts, and views about the world, and an underlying attitude of optimism or pessimism.

The respondent is helped by asking questions such as:

a) What is happening in the picture?

b) Why is it happening?

c) What is your feeling about the character shown in the picture?

d) Who is right?

e) Who is the aggressor? Or who is right and who is wrong?

4) Cartoon Test or Balloon Test

Here a cartoon is shown. The cartoon character belongs to a particular situation. One or more of ‘balloons’ include the conversation of the character, and is left open and the respondent is asked to fill in.

5. Protocol analysis

In this method, people are placed in decision making situations and ask them to speak about everything that they will consider while making a choice of a product or services. This is a qualitative research. In this, the researcher will gain insight into consumer’s decision making process. After several people have given protocols, the researcher will review them and look at the commonalities such as brands considered, price … etc. Protocol studies are useful in the following situations, i.e., when the decision making process is very long involving several factors. Example, buying an apartment or a house or an expensive car.

CONDITIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL INTERVIEW

An interview is an interaction between the researcher and the respondent. The purpose of the interview is to elicit information from the respondent. Interview is the most versatile and flexible method of communication. The questioning can be adapted to the situation. Explanation, clarification can be requested if required. The drawback of the interview is that it is costly.

In order to complete an interview successfully, certain basic conditions should be satisfied. They are as follows:

1. Firstly, the interview should explain to the respondent what is expected from him. The respondent must know the subject-matter before he begins answering the researcher. If the respondent’s answer is incomplete, the researcher should rephrase the questions and explain the same to the respondent.

Example: How do you rate the movie “The Devils Shock”? If the answer is ‘somewhat OK’, the researcher cannot reach a conclusion about the perception of the respondent over the movie, because the answer is incomplete. He should ask further questions like “is it a horror movie? ‘Was it shocking’?” Etc.

2. Secondly, the researcher must sure those respondent posses the information required at the time of conducting interview. The respondent may be facing many problems due to which he is unable to give the information.

Example: Due to passage of time, he has forgotten, or may be the subject is sensitive and the respondent does not want to answer.

3. Thirdly, the respondent must be enthusiastic and cooperative. It is the job of the interview to create trust and maintain a good rapport. The interaction between the interviewer and respondent should not create a bias in the respondent’s replies. Therefore, it is the job of the interviewer to motivate the respondent. If the above steps are not taken, there may be errors.

Errors in Interviewing

Interview involves social relationship between two persons. Respondents adjust their conduct to what they consider to be appropriate to the situation. The interviewer should be able to establish a good rapport. If a good rapport is lacking, the respondent might answer half-heartedly. Errors can occur due to indifference of the respondent.

· If the interviewer is biased, i.e., he suggest the answer by stressing some part of the questions or by his tone, error can occur. The interview must be neutral and objectives, if his error is to avoided.

· Error can also occur due to inconsistencies in the reply of the respondent. The interviewer should bring this to the notice of the respondent. The interviewer can probe further to correct these inconsistencies.

· There can be errors in recording or interpreting the response. One type of error could be recording matter that were not said, as well as not recording matter that were said. Clerical mistakes, add to errors. The interviewer’s experience, attitudes and opinions also affect the recorder answers.

· Cheating by interviewers is a serious problem leading to serious errors. The most glaring example is the interviewer who fills the questions without making interviews. If respondents are difficult to locate and interview, cheating increases.

How to minimize the errors:

· Select and train the interviewers.

Set up supervision to check the interviewers’ work.

MEASUREMENT & SCALING TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

Attitude is a degree of positive or negative effect associated with some psychological object. Attitudes are subjective and personal. Attitude influences the behavior. Purchase decisions are based upon the attitudes. The attitudes can change over time.

Components of attitude: attitude has three components, namely cognitive, affective and the behavioural.

Cognitive:- This refers to the respondents’ beliefs, knowledge or awareness about an event or an object. This is usually acquired from friends, periodicals etc. sometimes, it is also known as the belief component. Statements like: (a) I am aware of the product ‘X’ (b) I have no idea about the product ‘B’ (c) That institute is excellent.

Affective:- This refers to the respondents’ liking or preferences for an object. This is also known as the feeling component. (a) I like the product ‘A’ (b) Advertisement ‘X’ is poor. This component reveals the buyers’ positive or negative attitudes towards the product.

Behavioural:- This refers to the respondent’s intention to buy. This is a situation prior to the purchase. In marketing, the usage and buying pattern depends on this component. This is also known as action component.

DETERMINANTS OF ATTITUDE (WHAT ALERTS THE ATTITUDE?)

Attitudes are not static, but change continuously. Attitudes undergo change due to five factors:.

· Information gathered in the past relating to the actual experience.

· Individual perception and belief.

· Exposure to new information.

· Changes in the group membership.

· Individual personality

PRIMARY SCALING TECHNIQUES

There are 4 kinds of scales, namely:

(a) Nominal scale

(b) Ordinal scale

(c) Interval scale

(d) Ratio scale

1) Nominal Scale

In this scale, numbers are used to identify the objects. For example, University Registration numbers assigned to students, numbers on their jerseys.

Examples: Have you ever visited Bangalore?

Yes – 1

No – 2

‘Yes’ is coded as ‘one’ & ‘No’ is coded as ‘two’. The numeric attached to the answers has no meaning, and is a mere identification. If numbers are interchanged as one for ‘No’ & two for ‘Yes’, it won’t affect the answers given by respondents. The numbers used in nominal scales serve only the purpose of counting.

The telephone numbers are an example of nominal scale, where one number is assigned to one subscriber. The idea of using nominal scale is to make sure that no 2 persons or objects receive the same number. Similarly, bus route numbers are the example of nominal scale.

“How old are you”? This is an example of a nominal scale.

“What is your pan card number?”

Arranging the books in the library, subject wise, author wise – we use nominal scale.

Example: Physics – 48, Chemistry – 92, etc.

Limitations

(a) There is no rank ordering.

(b) No mathematical operation is possible.

(c) Statistical implication – Calculation of the standard deviation & the mean is not possible. It is possible to express the mode.

2) Ordinal Scale (Ranking Scale)

The Ordinal scale is used for ranking in most market research studies. Ordinal scales are used to ascertain the consumer perceptions, preferences, etc. For example, the respondents may be given a list of brands which may be suitable & were asked to rank on the basis of ordinal scale.

· Lux

· Liril

· Cinthol

· Lifebuoy

· Hamam

Rank	Item	Number of respondents
I.	Cinthol	150
II.	Liril	300
III.	Hamam	250
IV.	Lux	200
V.	Lifebuoy	100
Total		1,000

In the above example, II is mode & III is median.

Statistical implications: It is possible to calculate the mode & the median.

In market research, we often ask the respondents to rank the items, like for example, “A soft drink, based upon flavour or colour”. In such a case, the ordinal scale is used. Ordinal scale is a ranking scale.

Rank the following attributes of 1 – 5 scale according to the importance in the microwave oven:

Attributes	Rank
A) Company Image B) Functions C) Price D) Comfort E) Design	5 3 2 1 4

Difference between Nominal & Ordinal Scales

In Nominal scale numbers can be interchanged, because it serves only for the purpose of counting. Numbers in Ordinal scale have meaning and won’t allow interchangeability.

3) Interval scale:

Interval scale is more powerful than the nominal and ordinal scales. The distance given on the scale represents equal distance on the property being measured. Interval scale may tell us “How far the objects are apart with respect to an attribute?” This means that the difference can be compared. The difference between “1” and “2” is equal to the difference between “2” and “3”.

Example 1: Suppose we want to measure the rating of a refrigerator using interval scale. It will appear as follows:

1. Brand name poor good
2. Price high low
3. Service after sales poor good
4. Utility poor good

The researcher cannot conclude that the respondent who gives a rating of 6 is 3 times more favourable towards a product under study than another respondent who awards the rating of 2.

Example 2: How many hours you spend to do class assignments every day?

<>

30 min. to 1 hr.

1 hr. to 1¹/₂ hrs.

>1¹/₂ hrs.

Statistical implications: we can compute the range, mean, median, etc.

Differences between interval and ordinal scales: ordinal scale gives only the ranking of the alternatives viz., one is greater than the other, but won’t give the differences/distance between one and the other. Interval scales provide information about the difference between one and the other.

4) Ratio Scale:

Ratio scale is a special kind of interval scale that has a meaningful zero point. With this scale, length, weight or distance can be measured. In this scale, it is possible to say, how many times greater or smaller one object is being compared to the other.

Example: Sales this year for product A are twice the sales of the same product last year.

Statistical implications: All statistical operations can be performed on this scale.

COMPARATIVE AND NON COMPARATIVE SCALES

COMPARATIVE SCALES:

Paired comparison

E.g.: Here a respondent is asked to show his preferences from among five brands of coffee-A,B,C,D and E with respect to flavors. He required to indicate his preference in pairs. A number of pairs are calculated as follows’. The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so each brand in the category compared once to every other brand. In each pair, the respondents were asked to divide 100 points on the basis of how much liked one compared to another. The score is totally for each brand.

No. of pairs = N (N-1)/2

In this case, it is 5(5-1)/2 = 2.

A&B	B&D
A&C	B&E
A&D	C&D
A&E	C&E
B&C	D&E

If there are brands to be evaluated, then we have 105 paired comparisons and that is the limitation of this method.

Rank Order Scale

In this method, respondents are required to rank more than two objects or alternatives based on some criteria. E.g.: good taste, ease of usage etc. it is simpler than paired comparison scale, as its procedure can be easily understood by the respondent.

Rank order scales are more difficult than rating scale because they involve comparison and hence require more attention and mental effort. The main disadvantage is the respondent may not like to make a choice among the given alternative and hence compelled to choose one of the given alternative.

Another shortcoming of the rank order scaling is that, respondents cannot meaningfully rank more then 5 to 6 objects. The problem will not arise while ranking of first and last objects but with those in the undifferentiated middle. When there are several objects, one solution is to divide the ranking into 2 stages. Eg: with 9 objects, the first stage would be to rank the objects into classes. Top three middle and last three. The next stage would be to rank the 3 objects within each class.

Constant sum scale:

Is one of the methods of comparative scaling. In this method, the respondent is instructed to allocate some constant sum (points) to various features given, based on the importance of attribute to the respondent may be done as follows. 100 points are assigned, which will be allocated among the features. The features may be as follows:

Feature No. of Points Location -------------- Banking Hours -------------- Interest Rate -------------- Courteous nature of employees -------------- Loan facilities --------------

Banking features as given above are allocated 100 points. Allocation depends on the importance of features as judged by the respondent. Respondent may allocate interest rate 30 points, location 10 points, etc. here respondent need to divide 100 points among various features given above.

By using his scale, bank will come to know the attributes that are more important to the customer which in run influence the customer to choose a particular bank. The only precaution to be taken while administering this scale is that, if there are too many attributes, the respondent will find it difficult, since lot of mental energy is required to answer the scale. This scale cannot be used effectively in case the respondent is illiterate.

13.5.4 Research Insight

New Baby care Product (Perceptual Mapping)

This method is particular about the steeps adopted by searchers to assist a company in the newborn baby care market. The example cited is that of Marico. This map helps Marico to identify the position of its competitors. Marico introduced a new brand baby oil named “Sparsh.” This is an unorthodox entry. Marico was the first to rope in an ambassador actress in a market worth Rs.300 crore. A second brand ambassador to speak in favour was Sonali Bendre, for both baby oil and a bathing bar . The reason for choosing a female ambassador was to lay emphasis on the concept of motherhood.

Marico is a leader in the world’s largest coconut oil brand namely, Parachute . They are now switching over to health care products from hair oil and edible oil. Thought adult health care products constitute a Rs. 1,500 crore market , baby care segment still continues to be a niche market . The following are some of the obstacles in developing loyalty towards the baby care products.

1. The family may use the same adult hair care product for children as well.

2. Customers repeating the product are hard to find due to the fact that women have fewer babies in present times .

3. Women stick to the product that their mothers recommend.

4. Herbal versions are still popular in urban, semi-urban and rural areas.

5. There are big players in the field of baby care products.

A few example are Johnson and Johnson , Dabur, Wipro, etc . The market also has the Himalaya Drug Company which has established its own herbal baby care division.

The uniqueness of Sparsh lies in the fact that it meets consumer needs by using traditional ingredients in modern packing . Marico’s man effort is to created brand differentiation .

Two parameter used by Sparsh of Marico are ;

1. Price.

2. Value perception.

In a segment , where perceived quality governs decision-making , and value as a parameter is the choice , value proposition is central to Spars’h marketing

Perceptual mapping for baby care brands in india

MULTI-DIMENSIONAL SCALING

This is used to study consumer attitude, particularly with respect to perceptions and preferences. These techniques help identify the producer attributes that are important to the customers and to measure their relative importance. MDS is useful in studying the following:

1. (a) What are the major attributes considered while choosing a product (soft drinks, modes of transportation)?

(b) Which attributes do customers compare to evaluate different brands of the product? Is it price, quality, availability etc.

2. which is the ideal combination of attributes according to the customer? (i.e. which Two or more attributes consumer will consider before deciding to buy).

3. Which advertising messages is compatible with the consumers brand perceptions?

This scaling is used to describe similarity and preference of brands. The respondents were asked to indicate their perception, or the similarity between various objects (products, brands, etc.)and preference among objects. This scaling is also known as perceptual mapping.

There are two ways of collecting the input data to plot perceptual mapping:

1. Non-attribute method.
2. Attribute method.

1. Non attribute method: here, the researcher asks the respondent to make a judgment about directly. In this method, the criteria for comparing the objects is decided by the respondent himself.
2. Attribute method: in this method, instead of respondents selecting the criteria, they were asked to compare the objects based on the criteria specified by the researcher

For example, to determine the perception of a consumer:

Assume there are five insurance companies to be evaluated on two attributes namely (1) convenient locality (2) courteous personal service. Customer’s perception regarding the 5 insurance companies is as follows:

A, B, C, D, and E are the 5 insurance companies.

According to the map, B&E are dissimilar insurance companies.

C is being located very conveniently.

A is a less convenient in location compared to E.

D is a less convenient in location than C.

E is a less convenient location compared to D.

USE OF MDS:

1. To determine salient product attributes perceived by buyers in the market.
2. To know the combination of attributes buyers are likely to prefer.
3. To understand the products which are viewed as substitutes and those that are differentiated?
4. For segmenting the market.

Following are the some tools used in MDS:

Software’s such as SPSS’s, SAS, and excel are the packages used in MDS. Brand positioning research is one of SPSS’s important features. SAS is a business intelligence software. Excel is also used to a certain extent.

Limitations of MDS:

1.conceptual problem: the criteria on which the similarities are gauged may vary during an interview with respondents. The vary depending on what the respondent thinks. A customer may buy something for himself or he may gift a produvt to others. In both cases, the criteria used for selection are different.

2. Preference: keeps changing from time to time

3. complicated computational problem.

Q SORT SCALING

When there are very large number of characteristics to be rated, it becomes very difficult for the responded to rank order. To deal with this, Q Sort scaling procedure is used. In this technique, respondents are used to sort out the various characteristics into convenient groups. Therefore, large number of groups is used in this method. This will increase the reliability of results.

Suppose respondents are given say 100 statements. They are asked to [place them in 11 piles, ranging from most highly agree to least highly agree. The ideal number of this type of scaling should be between 60 & 90. the number of statements placed in each pile is prespecified so that roughly normal distribution of object is obtained.

NON COMPARATIVE SCALES

In non-comparative scale, the respondent is allowed to arbitrarily apply different standards. In other words, different reference points are chosen. This may lead to ambiguities in computation.

Likert Scale

It is known as summated rating scale. This consists of a series of statements concerning an attitude object. Each statement has ‘5 points’, Agree and Disagree on the scale. They are also called summated scales, because scores of individual items are summated to produce a total score for the respondent. The Likert scale consists of two parts- item part and evaluation part. Item part is usually a statement about a certain product, event or attitude. Evaluation part is a list of responses like ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. The five point-scale is used here. The numbers like +2, +1, 0, -1, -2 are used. The Likert Scale must contain an equal number of favorable and unfavorable statements.

Now, let us see with an example how the attitude of a customer is measured with respect to a shopping mall.

Evaluation of Globus- the Super Market by Respondent

Sl.no. Likert scale items strongly Disagree Neither agree Agree Strongly

disagree nor disagree agree

1. salesmen at shopping mall

are courteous.

2. shopping mall does not have

enough parking space.

3. prices of items are reasonable
4. mall has wide range of products

to choose.

5. mall operating hours are inconvenient

6. the arrangement of items in the

mall is confusing.

The respondents’ overall attitude is measured by summing up his numerical rating on the statement making up the scale. Since some statements are favorable and others unfavorable, it is the one important task to be done before summing up the ratings. In other words, ‘strongly agree’ category attached to favorable statement and ‘strongly disagree’ category attached to unfavorable. The statement must always be assigned the same number, such as +2, or -2. The success of the Likert Scale depends on ‘ How well the statements are generated?’ The higher the respondents score, the more favorable is the attitude. For example, if there are two shopping malls, ABC and XYZ and if the scores using the Likert Scale are 30 and 60 respectively, we can conclude that the customer’s attitude towards XYZ is more favorable than ABC.

SEMANTIC DIFFERNTIAL SCALE

This is very similar to the Likert Scale. It also consists of a number of items to be rated by the respondents. The essential difference between Likert and Semantic Differential Scale is as follows:

It uses “Bipolar” adjectives and phrases. There are no statements in the Semantic Differential Scale.

Each pair of adjective is separated by a seven point scale.

Some individuals have favourable descriptions on the right side, while some have on the left side. The reason for the reversal is to have a combination of both favourable and unfavourable statements.

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE ITEMS

Please rate the five real estate developers mentioned below on the given scales for each of the five aspects. Developers are:

(1) Ansal (2) Raheja (3) Purvankara (4) Mantri (5) Salpuria

# Scale items

	-3	-2	-1	0	+1	+2	+3
1. Not reliable	_	_	_	_	_	_	_	Reliable
2. Expensive	_	_	_	_	_	_	_	Not expensive
3. Trustworthy	_	_	_	_	_	_	_	Not trustworthy
4. Untimely delivery	_	_	_	_	_	_	_	Timely delivery
5. Strong brand image	_	_	_	_	_	_	_	Poor brand image

The respondents were asked to tick one of the seven categories which describes their views on attitude. Computation is being done exactly the same way as in Likert scale. Suppose, we are trying to evaluate the packaging of a particular product. The seven point scale will be as follows:

“I feel ………………

1. Delighted

2. Pleased

3. Mostly satisfied

4. Equally satisfied and dissatisfied

5. Mostly dissatisfied

6. Unhappy

7. Terrible.

Staple Scale

This scale is a modified version of semantic differential scale. It uses only one pole. It is a ten print scale with a range of +5 to -5. this scale measures both the direction and intensity of attitude simultaneously. Unlike semantic differential study, which uses bipolar adjectives, here single word is used to describe the characteristic of interest. There is no absolute zero point. This is an interval scales. Respondents are asked to indicate the object by selecting a numerical response category. The main advantage of this scale is that it is simple to administer and also to construct.

An illustration of staple scale is as follows. You have been associated with M/s XYZ company, conducting marketing research.

How would you rate M/s XYZ Ltd. in terms of

a) Accuracy of data provided by them

b) Quality of researchers employed by them

c) Quantum of money charged for providing data

Circle the number you think is most appropriate. If you think, the data provided by the research company is extremely accurate circle +5 and vice-versa

Staple scale is used in developing profile analysis. Despite the simplicity of constructing and usage, semantic differential scale finds an edge.

THURSTONE SCALE

This is also known as an equal appearing interval scale. The following are the steps to construct a Thurstone scale:

Step 1: To generate a large number of statements, relating to the attitude to be measured.

Step 2: These statements (75 to 100) are given to a group of judges, say 20 to 30, who were asked to classify them according to the degree of favourableness and unfavourableness.

Step 3: 11 piles are to be made by the judges. The piles vary from “most unfavourable” in pile 1 to neutral in pile 6 and most favourable statement in pile 11.

Step 4: Study the frequency distribution of ratings for each statement and eliminate those statements, which different judges have given widely scattered ratings.

Step 5: Select one or two statements from each of the 11 piles for the final scale. List the selected statements in random order to form the scale.

Step 6: The respondents whose attitudes are to be scaled were given the list of statements and asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement with each statement. Some may agree with one statement while some may agree with more than one statement.

Example: Crime and violence in movies:

1. All movies with crime and violence should be prohibited by law.

2. Watching crime and violence is a waste of time.

3. Most movies with crime are bad and harmful.

4. The direction and theme in most crime movies are monotonous.

5. Watching a movie with crime and violence does not interfere with my routine life.

6. I have no opinion one way or the other, about watching movies with crime and violence.

7. I like to watch movies with crime and violence.

8. Most movies with crime and violence are interesting and absorbing.

9. Crime movies act as a knowledge bank gained by the audience.

10. People learn “how to be safe and protect oneself” by seeing a movie on crime.

11. Watching crime in a movie does not harm our lifestyle.

Conclusion: A respondent might agree with statements 8, 9 and 10. Such agreement represents a favourable attitude towards crime and violence. On the contrary, if items 1, 3, 4 are chosen by respondents, it shows that respondents unfavourably disposed towards crime in movies. If the respondent chooses 1, 5 and 11, it could be interpreted to indicate that she (he) is not consistent in his (her) attitude about the subject.

MERITS OF THURSTONE SCALE

1. Very reliable, if we are measuring a single attitude.

2. Used to find attitude towards issues like war, religion, language, culture, place of worship etc.

LIMITATIONS

1. Limited use in marketing research, since it is time consuming.

2. Collecting a number of statements (100-200) makes it a very tedious job.

3. Bias on the part of the judges cannot be avoided.

4. It is an expensive method.

JUSTER 11-POINT PROBABILITY SCALE(JUSTER SCALE)

In 1966, professor F.Thomas juster argued that since verbal intensions are simply disguised probability statements, then why not directly capture the probabilities themselves as measured by the respondents.

Juster 11 point probability scale can be used to produce estimates of the average probability that a population will do something by a future time. Since what is being measured s a probability, the mean response estimates the proportion of the population that will perform the behaviour at issue.

An example is given by the question,”on a scale of 0-10 where 0 indicates no chance and 10 indicates certainity, what is the chance that you will change your primary bank in the next 12 months?” if then the average response is 3.2, this translates to 32% of the population intend to switch banks.

The juster scale in its many applications has bee found to be superior as a predictive measure of future purchase behaviour than othe intensions scales.the distribution of responses however, has been found to affect the predict accuracy of the scale. Not surprisingly, the greater the variation in responses, the less accurate the predictions.

Studies have shown that purchase probabilities can be over or under estimated by the juster scale, it is the most consistent in accurately predicting actual purchase rates. There are important issues to be considered in the administration of the juster scale that have been found to contribute to variation in its effectiveness. These include unfamiliarity of the respondent with new products, training of the administrator and differences in age and education level of respondents.

The juster scale has been successfully used to predict respondent behaviour outside the typical consumption behaviour realm, which includes being applied to telephone surveys, fast moving consumer goods, services, brands and customer loyalty. One example of such an extension involved predicting the percentage of a given population of adults currently at home looking after children, who will take up paid employment in the next year. At a aggregate level in this example, the juster scale mean was 1.9 indicating that a predicted 19% of the respondents would find paid work in the next year. When actual behaviour was measured in the following year, it was found that indeed, 19% of these respondents were in paid employment.

score	Verbal equivalent
0	No chance, almost no chance(1 in 100)
1	Very slight possibility(1chance in 10)
2	Slight possibility(2 chances in 10)
3	some possibility(3 chances in 10)
4	Fair possibility(4 chances in 10)
5	Fairly good possibility( 5 chance in 10)
6	Good possibility( 6 chances in 10)
7	Probable (7 chances in 10)
8	Very probable ( 8 chances in 10)
9	Almost sure( 9chances in 10)
10	Certain, practically certain (99 chances in 100)

CRITERIA FOR THE GOOD TEST

There are two criteria to decide whether the scale selected is good or not. They are shown in the diagram given below:

Reliability

For a research to be sound, reliability is an important criterion. Reliability means, ability of a scale to produce a consistence result if repeated measurements are taken. Reliability means, ability of a scale to produce a consistent result if repeated measurements are taken. Reliability is the extent to which scale are free from random error and produce consistent result. Lesser the random error, the data will be more reliable. Random error is not a constant error but, it depends on the person using the measuring instrument or measurement situation. A random error leads to inconsistency in measurement are made on the same objects or persons.

An example of random error would be the use of elastic scale to measure a person's height. If 2 successive measurements are made, the person who is measuring would stretch the elastic ruler to different degree on 2 successive occasions, therefore, the height has not changed.

In addition to the random error, there is one more error namely systematic error .it is also called as non sampling error. This error includes all types of error except random sampling error .therefore, we can say

Measurement results =true measurement +measurement error.

Measurement error =true measurement +systematic error +random error.

Test-retest method:

There is an approach called test-retest to check the reliability. In this approach, respondents are given identical sets of scales at two different points of time

Under almost identical conditions. The time interval is between 2 to 5 weeks. The similarity between 2 measurements is determined by calculating the correction coefficient, greater the reliability.

The disadvantages of this method are that, if the interval between first and second test is more the scale will be less reliable.

Second disadvantages is, it is difficult to convince the original respondents to take the test for second time.

Third disadvantages are that, the second time answer may be influenced by the first time answer. Assume that, an opinion about the hospital service is asked. two weeks later, if the same question is asked, the reply by respondent will be influenced by what was told the first time.

EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABILITY:

In this method 2 "equivalent" scales are used to obtain consistent result. So, the researcher administers one scale to the respondent and week later another scale, which is equivalent of the first one to the same respondent.

The greatest problem of this method is to construct 2 scales that appear to be different but have similar effect. This alternative forms test is similar effect. This alternative forms test is similar effect. This alternative forms test is similar to the test-retest method, except that the test-retest method uses the same measuring instrument both the times.

INTERNAL CONSISTENCY:

In this method two more measurement of the same concept is taken at the same time and then compares to see if they agree with each other. Suppose we use Likert scale and offer choices from strongly disagree to determine consumer attitude towards the service rendered by big Bazaar. Suppose the researcher prepares 4 statements scale to measure this:

1) I enjoy shopping at Big Bazaar.

2) All my needs for my household are satisfied by shopping in bi bazaar.

3) Service provided to me by big Bazaar is excellent.

4) I like the front line salesman regarding the service rendered.

The degree to which the 4 statements show correlation across a sample of respondents indicates the reliability of the measures. If correlation is high, then reliability will also high.

METHODS TO IMPROVE RELIABILITY

1) Number of measurement is to be increased. Instead of conducting one test, average scores of several equivalent forms of the test is to considered for reliability.

2) Controls used for conducting the experiment must be good .example,

(a) Measuring device must be accurate.

(b) The research who administers must be trained to avoid bias in respondents.

(c) Items to be measured must be stated clearly.

VALIDITY:

The paradigm of validity focused in the question “Are we measuring, what we think, we are measuring”? Success of the scale lies in measuring “what is intended to be measured?”Of the two attributes of scaling, validity is the most important.

There are several methods to check the validity of the scale used for measurement.

1) Construct validity :

A sales manager believes that there is a clear relation between job satisfaction for a person and degree to which a person is an extrovert and the work performance of his sales forces .therefore, those who enjoy high job satisfaction, and have extrovert personalities should exhibit high performance. If they do not, then we can question the construct validity of the measure.

2) Content validity:

A researcher should define the problem clearly .identify the items to be measured .evolve a suitable scale for this purpose .despite these, the scale for this purpose .Despite these, the scale may be criticized for being lacking in content validity. Content validity is known as face validity .An example can be the introduction of new packaged food .when new packaged food is introduced, the product representing a major change in taste. Thousands of consumers may say that they liked the new flavor. With such a favorable reaction, the product when introduced on a commercial scale may still meet with failure. so, what is wrong? Perhaps a crucial question that was omitted. The people may be asked if liked the new packaged food, to which the majority might have “yes” but the same respondents were not asked, “Are you willing to give up the product which you are consuming currently?”In this case, the problem was not clearly identified and item to be ‘measured ‘was left out.

3) Predictive Validity:

This pertains to “How best a researcher can guess the future performance from the knowledge of attitude score”?

Example:

An opinion questionnaire, which is the basis for forecasting the demand for a product has predictive validity. The procedure for predictive validity is to first measure the attitude and then predicts the future behaviour. Finally, this is followed by the measurement of future behaviour at an appropriate time compare the two results (past and future)

If the two scores are closely associated, then the scale is said to have predictive validity.

Relationship between Reliability and Validity:

1) If a scale is to be, it must be reliable.

2) The scale does not have to be valid to be reliable.

3) Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity. This is because validity requires other factors to be satisfied.

4) Validity is not a necessary condition for reliability.

Bibliography

• Murthy, S.N & Bhojanna, U (2010 & 2008),”Business Research Methods”, Excel Books, New Delhi.
• Malhotra, Naresh K. (2007), “Marketing Research”, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
• Kothari, C.R (2007), “Research methodology”, new age international (p) limited, New Delhi
• http://www.blurtit.com/q130762.html
• http://wiki.answers.com/Q/The_advantages_and_disadvantages_of_primary_data
• http://www.slideshare.net/gulsweet/primary-data-secondary-data-presentation